Having established communities of Christ followers throughout the cities of the Mediterranean Roman world, the apostle Paul returned to Jerusalem to present to the 'mother church' there the collection that his new-found communities had raised for its support. When he went to the Temple (at the suggestion of the Jerusalem church leaders) he was attacked by Jewish zealots who accused him of undermining the Mosaic Torah. He was arrested by the Roman authorities and put on trial before the High Priest and Temple authorities. At one point during the trial Luke tells us that Paul noticed that there were both Pharisees and Sadducees present among those judging him. Paul declared 'I am on trial concerning the hope of the resurrection of the dead' (Acts 23.6-8). This set the two main parties among his accusers, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, against each other. As Luke explains 'The Sadducees say that there is no resurrection, or angel, or spirit; but the Pharisees acknowledge all three'. They started arguing among themselves with Paul's fellow Pharisees taking his side. Of course that in itself didn't save Paul - he wasn't released (in Luke's account he was destined to travel to Rome to stand trial before the emperor) but the point is that when Paul said he was on trial because of the hope of the resurrection of the dead it was clearly an idea with which a significant group of fellow Jews identified. Clearly then, belief in the resurrection of the dead was an important part of the faith of at least some Jews in the first century A.D., to some extent defining the identity of the parties active within Judaism, and yet, as I have suggested in previous posts, the Hebrew Bible actually says very little about life after death (of any kind). For the most part, the hope of a godly Jew was a long life lived in harmony with God, with the land and with his or her community. 'Afterlife' consisted in having a good name and many descendants. Death was a terrible thing because it destroyed all of those relationships (for some, even with God - Psalm 6.5). The dead were silent, mere shades, forgetful and insignificant. At least that's how most of the texts in the Hebrew Bible regard it. It's virtually impossible to reconstruct now what the majority of 'ordinary' Hebrews really believed and it could well be that many were much more affirming of life after death than the biblical texts suggest. But my aim here is to try to describe 'what the bible really says about the afterlife' (see the header above!), and what the bible 'really says' is that the silent, shady Sheol was the common destination of all, and that wasn't something people looked forward to. So the obvious question is, how did Judaism get from the position of believing that death inevitably led to permanent sleep in Sheol, to the situation where some Jews could respond positively to Paul's claim that he was on trial because of his belief 'in the resurrection'? How did it get from being a religion with little or no hope of 'after-life', to one rich in resurrection hope and imagery? That is actually a complicated question to answer because the process was a subtle and complex one. There is probably no one moment and no one easily identifiable 'reason' why an expectation of resurrection emerged in Judaism. But if we want to understand that development we have to start with one very significant text from the book of Daniel. According to some commentators (but not me!) it is in fact the only biblical text that explicitly talks about a resurrection. It is a text which marks a distinct change in emphasis from the hope for a good and long life well lived to a hope for life beyond (and outside) the grave. It is a text which announces the possibility that the dead will rise. And yet it is a text which challenges most of our assumptions about what such a 'rising' might entail. To plagarise the famous (apocryphal) words of Spock from the original Star Trek "it's resurrection Jim, but not as we know it". One day as Daniel stood beside the river Tigris the angel Gabriel appeared to him and announced a forthcoming existential crisis in Israels' life. At the end of that crisis says Gabriel, the Lord will send Michael the great Archangel to bring an end to Israel's woes.
The crisis of faithThis verse comes towards the end of a long prophecy by the angel Gabriel, (God's messenger-angel) to Daniel detailing the forthcoming challenge to Israel's integrity as the faithful people of God, caused by the rise of Hellenistic culture and power. Gabriel predicts the rise of Greek power under Alexander, the splitting of his kingdom after his death and of the ensuing battles between the two neighbouring Hellenised powers, The Seleucid Kingdom of Assyria to Israel's north and the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt to it's south. Gabriel tells Daniel that at 'the end' a 'terrible king' will arise in the northern kingdom who will desecrate the Holy of Holies in the Temple.
This king predicted by Gabriel was Antiochus IV Epiphanes, ruler of the Seleucid empire from 175-164 BC. At one point he apparently set up a statue of the Greek Father-god Zeus in the Temple in Jerusalem, the ultimate sacrilege for a God-fearing Jew. In other words he was saying that the God of the Hebrews was really none other than Zeus. The sanctuary in the Temple was regarded by Jews as the holiest place on earth and so this act was referred to then as 'the abomination'. His actions led (in part) to the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucids under Judas Maccabeus. Gabriel warns Daniel that during this crisis many Jews will be tempted to renounce the Torah (the Jewish Law) and adopt Hellenistic practices which are not permitted by the Torah. Many of those who refuse to compromise with 'the Hellenisers', he says, will be murdered.
But Gabriel tells Daniel that after this will come 'the end' i.e that point in history when God will finally and decisively intervene for the good of his people to deliver them. At that time, says Gabriel, this wicked king will be killed in a battle with the king of the southern kingdom and God will intervene directly to save his people Israel.
Powers and PrincipalitiesMichael is Israel's 'guardian angel' or 'prince'. The Bible suggests that each nation has its own angel-prince, its own celestial governor. The key verse is found in Deuteronomy When the Most High apportioned the nations, Each nation was created according to the number of the gods i.e. the powers in heaven. Each power was given one nation to rule. To a significant degree these 'angelic' powers were thought to determine the outcome of that nation's history as they represented and fought in 'the heavenlies' for their respective nations. So, in chapter 10, right at the beginning of the vision by the Tigris, Gabriel tells Daniel that he had been kept from coming to Daniel because . . ..
One of the great claims of the Hebrews was that they alone of all the nations of earth had no princely ruler, for Yahweh Himself ruled his people. As the text quoted above from Deuteronomy claims, the Lord's own portion was his people i.e. all the other heavenly beings received nations to rule but the Lord kept Israel to be his own. That is also the proud claim of the Book of Jubilees
But here, in contrast, Daniel is told that Michael is the angel of Israel. The text doesn't try to reconcile this with the earlier claims but simply states it as a matter of fact. It is not Yahweh Himself who will personally appear and right Israel's wrongs but that role will be taken by the princely angelic ruler of Israel, Michael. In the earlier posts about the wonderful (1st century A.D.?) Jewish text The Testament of Abraham we saw that Abraham's guide is Michael, who is there called the 'commander-in-chief (of the Lord's armies). He was clearly growing in importance in the life of the Jewish people. It would have come as no surprise to readers of Daniel to discover that Michael was their 'angelic prince' and that at the point of greatest need, as the crisis with Hellenism comes to a head, he would come to their aid. Standing up for IsraelDaniel is told that the guardian angel of Israel, the archangel Michael, will 'arise'. The text says that he will (literally) 'stand up' which means either that he will come to the physical aid of Israel as the military commander of the Lord's armies, or that he will 'stand' in judgement over Israel's enemies condemning them and vindicating the faithful servants of God. It may mean both! You can read more about Michael as the agent of God's deliverance and judgement if you click here Whatever his 'standing up' means, it will result in the victory/vindication of the righteous faithful people of God i.e those who have not been compromised by the Hellenistic practices that had tempted so many Jews and had caused a profound fracture in Jewish society. However, Daniel is warned that the victory/vindication will not come easily or peacefully. This 'last day' will not be an easy time to live through. It will be, apparently, a time of anguish unprecedented in the history of the Jews (indeed in the history of the whole of humanity). But those whose names are 'written in the book' will be 'delivered'. This is the Book of Life in which the names of all the righteous are recorded (Exodus 32.32-33; Psalm 69.28; Isaiah 4.3). Because they are indelibly inscribed in the divine book they can never be lost or forgotten. At the right time (whenever that is) God will send Israel's protector angel, Michael, to enact the divine purpose and Justice. Then the righteous faithful will find themselves delivered from harm so that they can live their lives peacefully and faithfully Rising from the dustBut the angel (Gabriel) goes to make a remarkable promise for those who have not been spared from harm, those who have fallen already in this existential struggle. Daniel is told that they (along with their deceased persecutors) will be raised from their sleep in the dust of the earth. And along with resurrection will come judgement. Some of them will be adjudged (presumably by Michael) to be fitted for everlasting life while the others will be awarded shame and everlasting contempt.
The really striking point here is that the deliverance/judgement which Michael will bring applies, it seems, to the living and the dead. Prior to this verse virtually every reference to salvation in the Hebrew Bible refers to people who are alive or, in a more general sense, to the people of God as an entity (including all their descendants). Salvation was very much about this life and the enjoyment of this life in peace with justice. Here something quite radically new seems to be in view: now even the dead can participate in the deliverance of God! We can get so caught up looking at this verse as a proof text for the idea of resurrection that we lose sight of the remarkable impact of this verse within its own context. The point of the passage as we have seen is judgement and vindication. The dead are not raised to be raised as an end in itself, but as their vindication or condemnation, their judgement. And that judgement is not to satisfy some need in God to judge and condemn people but is rather as a fulfillment of his promise to honour and vindicate his faithful people. And of course that itself is a reflection of an even deeper hope within the Hebrew Bible that one day God would set right everything that has gone wrong in Israel's life (and ultimate within the creation). The faithful people of God believed that one day God would reverse all the injustices and inequalities in their society. This is powerfully and beautifully brought out in the Song of Hannah in 1 Samuel 2 Hannah prayed and said, The point is that the poor, the downtrodden, the weak and the helpless will be vindicated by God. In particular we read that The Lord kills and brings to life; he brings down to Sheol and raises up. Death, in this song, is seen as the price of godliness, the consequence of the refusal of the faithful to participate in the wickedness around them, a sign of the faithful commitment of those who are true Israelites. They have died because of their commitment to the cause of God. God will then reverse this injustice, for he is the God who can bring to life. In fact this is the God who raises up the poor from the dust who lifts the needy from the ash heap and makes them sit with princes. This of course is the same God who now, here in Daniel, will 'lift up' those who sleep in the dust. So we understand that the promise here in Daniel is a also a promise of reversal, of the righting of wrongs and the vindication of the victims of oppression and violence. Clearly using the same language as we see used in 1 Samuel, Gabriel tells Daniel that at the end, when Michael comes, the righteous dead will be raised from the dust, as a sign of their vindication. So, in this way, God will keep his promise to be the God who 'kills and brings to life', the God who 'brings down to Sheol and raises up' and who 'raises up the poor from the dust and makes them sit with princes'! So the meaning of this text within its original context is that at the end God will reverse all the iniquity in the land ravaged by Hellenism and the destruction wrought by the invading powers. He will set everything right even raising those who have given their lives in the struggle (on both sides). This is not actually the a text about resurrection but about justice. The manyOne of the most unexpected aspects of this text is that it is not a prediction or promise of what we call in Christian theology the General Resurrection of the Dead. This this resurrection is for some people only. The text says many of those who sleep in the dust shall be raised. It is linguistically possible that 'many' here really means 'all', (i.e. it emphasises the vast number raised) and some commentators take it this way but in this particular context it seems more likely to me that Gabriel actually means 'many' as distinct from everyone, in other words, those whose deaths have been caused by the crisis at hand. They will all arise and then be judged according to their faithfulness to God. Those who have kept the faith will be rewarded with eternal life while those who betrayed their faith and their nation by siding with Israel's enemies will be condemned to shame and torment. As John Collins puts it
The point of saying this is that we are not here reading a promise of the universal resurrection of all mankind at the end of time (i.e the Last Judgement) which becomes part of later Christian eschatology. That was never envisaged in the 'resurrection hope' in the Hebrew Bible. In this passage, and also I believe in the one other clear prediction of resurrection of the dead in the Hebrew Bible in Isaiah 26.19 (see here for a discussion of that passage) the promise of resurrection applies only to members of Israel, the covenant community, the people of God. The point is that what God is doing here is reversing the injustice that some died without receiving their due and proper evaluation. Some people had gone to their graves holding positions of honour and esteem within Israel who were clearly unworthy of such honour. They were in fact God's enemies and by supporting the Hellenistic ideas had shown themselves to be the enemies of the true faith. Others, who had remained faithful to God, had died in such a way that they were considered 'ungodly'. Something needed to be done. God would set things right! The many who had died during this time of crisis would be brought back from their dusty graves so that the righteous could be given their due worth and the wicked duly condemned. It's hard to realise what a new idea this really was. This is the first time in the Hebrew Bible that we read about the judgement of the dead. That might sound really strange. We are so used to thinking of being judged when we die or of the Last Judgement at the eschaton, that we find it strange to think of it as a new idea'. But it was. Prior to this text there are no references anywhere in the Hebrew Bible to the dead being judged. There are many references to judgement of the living and of death as a punishment. There are even indications of some kind of distinctions in death between the wicked and the righteous, either in terms of good and bad burial places or distinctions in Sheol, the land of the dead. But never anywhere before this verse do we read about the dead being judged. It might be worth comparing this passage with the other great promise of resurrection in the so-called 'Little Apocalypse' of Isaiah. In Isaiah 26.13-20 we read this O Lord our God, The contrast between the two outcomes for the wicked and the righteous respectively is stark. We are told first, with reference to the wicked, that the dead do not live, the shades do not rise. Their punishment of the wicked is death itself, being sent to the land of the shades, Sheol, from which there is no return. These dead do not rise, these shades will never be seen again. They belong now forever to the land of death. Their punishment is to remain in Sheol forever. But the righteous dead, on the other hand, will find life. Your dead shall live, their corpses (ie those who sleep in the dust) shall rise. This is an obvious, stark contrast. The wicked inherit death. The righteous find life. In contrast, here in Daniel 12, both the living and dead (or at least 'many' of them) are raised in order to be judged. The point of the resurrection is judgement. In contrast to Isaiah, the passage here in Daniel is not promising resurrection as the reward of the righteous. It is not an end in itself; resurrection is the essential prerequisite for the vitally important task of publicly proclaiming the righteousness of the faithful followers of the Lord, those who had lost their lives as martyrs in the conflict with the forces of Hellenism. Sleeping in SheolThe text says that those who are to be resurrected are 'sleeping in the dust'. There is nothing said about them coming back from hell or from heaven. They are simply dead and the the 'home' of the dead is in 'the dust' i.e in the ground where their lifeless bodies lie. The imagery is at the same time obvious and perplexing. On the one had (the 'obvious' bit) they are 'in the dust' because that is where human beings come from and so the place to which they return. (Genesis 3.19). I will say more about this in another post but it's worth pointing out that for the writers of the Hebrew bible, even the book of Daniel, the dead have no lives without bodies. Human beings in the Hebrew Bible are always a unity of body and inner self-consciousness (so not a 'soul' in the sense we usually mean) which is the result of God's life-giving breath (Genesis 2.7). Without that life-giving breath the human being simply dies and returns to the dust (Ecclesiastes 3.18-21). On the other hand (the perplexing bit) they are said to be sleeping, which implies that they still have life. After all, when we go to sleep we don't die; in fact sometimes our sleeping hours can be as active as our waking ones! We know that we move a great deal in our sleep and, of course, we dream. Usually (unless the dreams are scary and unpleasant) most people look forward to their sleep which offers a temporary escape from the stresses and challenges of waking life. Because of this it is easy to assume that the 'sleeping' dead are actually very much alive before this resurrection, just 'somewhere else', and that Daniel (or to be precise, Gabriel) is talking about the reuniting of the 'sleeping' souls with the lifeless bodies. After all, this is a common Christian way of speaking about death and we can find significant parallels in the New Testament e.g. where Paul uses the same phrase to describe those who have died in Thessalonica (1 Thessalonians 4.13-15). But our Christian usage doesn't usually talk about our loved sleeping 'in the dust' as the passage here in Daniel does. In other words this is not a phrase that indicates the quiet, peaceful waiting of the disembodied soul but rather, the posture of those who have died. It is as if they sleep in the dust, i.e. their graves. The dead bodies lie, supine, in the ground. This match between the imagery of sleep as lying down in the ground and death is found in a number of references in the Hebrew Bible to Sheol. For example the judgment on the forces of Elam is described by Ezekiel like this
And the Psalmist can use the same image of making a bed in 'death'.
In other words to 'sleep in the dust' or to 'make a bed in Sheol' were simply metaphors for death, not ways of saying something about the continued existence of a 'soul' beyond death (as Christians use it today). 'Some to eternal Life'The passage suggests that when the judgement by Michael is made some of those who are raised, the ones who have been faithful to the Torah, will receive 'eternal life'. Our natural instinct is to imagine that this means what we usually mean by it today i.e. life with God in heaven that never ends. But that's not what the readers of Daniel's book would have understood it to mean. They had no concept of people living with God in heaven. The passage envisages a reconstruction of the nation of Israel, freed now from the influence of the unfaithful members of the community and its foreign oppressors, in other words a truly righteous nation. The raised dead would enjoy life now within this reconstructed Israel freed forever from the shadow of death. The context for this promise is the battle between God and Death. The most fundamental claim about God in the Hebrew Bible is that God is the God of Life, the creator and sustainer of all life. Death then is the enemy of all that God seeks to do in creation. Although today we rightly see death as the natural limitation of all living things and part of the process which bring life into being, for the Hebrews death was something unnatural and indeed opposed to the divine purpose. Death was the boundary set on God's purposes and activity. Like a great shroud it hung over the earth and all human life and, in the end, like a great primeval monster, death swallows up everything. Until, that is, God Himself swallows up death (Isaiah 25.8)! Then at last, when death disappears, life, God given life, can not only thrive and flourish but can last without any limit either of quality or quantity. God's defeat of death, His swallowing of death, will mean that every purpose of God for humankind and the creation can be fulfilled. There will be no more sickness, death, frustration or disappointment. Life triumphs. Forever. So the 'eternal life' that the resurrected righteous inherit does not mean a heavenly afterlife. Rather, it implies life in the world but liberated from the shadow of death, and because of that a life that knows 'no limits of quality or quantity'. This eternal life is not life 'in heaven'. This life is earthly life lived in a place, in time (i.e. everlasting life doesn't mean life 'out of time'), and with activity (work and procreation!) done with others (family and friends). Eternal life is not some kind of ethereal escape but the institution of life as it was always intended to be. This is so important and so fundamental that it is worth saying again. When the Hebrew bible (the Christian Old Testament) talk about 'eternal life' it is talking about human life on earth restored to it's true purpose and design, in a place, in time and in communion. Jon Levenson sets this promise within the wider context of the book of Daniel. He writes -
'And some to everlasting shame'On the other hand, those whose names are not found in the Book of Life find themselves punished with 'shame and everlasting contempt'. They will be shown for what they really are; traitors and ungodly, truly defiled by their contact with Hellenism. These are the great betrayers and now everyone will know it. What is interesting about this is that it says nothing about the eternal fate of these people. It doesn't say whether they carry on living in Israel with the curse of their disgrace upon them, or whether they 'return to the dust' in a second death. It certainly doesn't imply that they live out an eternal future in some kind of place of punishment (i.e. hell or Gehenna). It provides absolutely no information at all about what happens to them except that forevermore they will be known as those who betrayed the Lord. The importance is not the material reality of their existence but the pronouncement made upon them by God. Life and death are really something much deeper than breathing or not breathing. Life and death are ways of talking about someone's place in the world and in the community. The righteous are restored to their rightful place within the community i.e. they are restored to life with others, while the wicked are excluded; they will find that they have no place in the community anymore. They are cursed. Like Adam and Eve after their rebellion they are banished 'outside', with no access to the Tree of Life. 'The God Life'This famous text is about resurrection, the resurrection of 'many' so that they can receive their appropriate judgement. It is the first time in the Hebrew Bible that we read about the dead being judged. But as I pointed out above, it is limited to a group of people involved in the existential crisis of the fight with Hellenism and Antiochus Epiphanes, it says nothing about any kind of heave or hell and doesn't even give us much detail about what kind of resurrection this is i.e. how we are to imagine the bodies (assuming they have bodies) of the resurrected dead. But actually this is a text about Life (with a big 'L'). The biblical God is the God of Life and here we find (not unexpectedly) that the God of Life can give new life to those whose lives have ended. In the bible, life is about the quality of a person's inner life and their relationships with God and the wider community. Some, through their embracing of Hellenism, have distanced themselves from God and the community, and they will be raised from death to experience the condemnation of God, a condemnation that involves public disgrace and opprobrium. This will make them perpetual outsiders, forever lost to the benefits of the kingdom of God. In that sense their lives have ended. On the other hand, those who served God loyally, who held fast to the ancient traditions of Israel will be raised from death in order to experience a positive judgement, a judgement that places them well and truly in the centre of life, life lived in the fellowship with God and with their community. This is life 'in all its abundance' as another Jewish teacher would one day say. This will be life without limit, without boundaries, a life that death can never ruin. There is no afterlife in the Hebrew Bible, just life. Afterlife assumes that what comes after death is something completely different, a different kind of existence altogether. But that's not how the Hebrew Bible sees things. In the view of the Hebrew Bible those who find God find a life that never actually ends. This life is full and rich, it is unlimited in quality and duration, and its origin lies in the power of God to overcome death the enemy and destroyer of life. The message of this text in Daniel is that people who die before that life becomes a universal reality can be brought back from the dead to enjoy it. That is the contribution of Daniel to the development of the idea of resurrection. But even so this promise is still made in the wider context of God's gift of life to the righteous, life that is essentially no different from the life enjoyed before death. It's difference is that in God's coming future, His kingdom, men and women will truly enjoy Life i.e life as it was truly intended by God, life of unlimited quality and quantity. It was as the embodiment of that Life and the victory of God over Death that Jesus Christ, that Jewish teacher I mentioned a moment ago, came to be revered and worshiped by the first 'Christians'. It was through the resurrection of Jesus that his first followers realised that the promise of life without limit had at last become a reality.
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4/21/2024 06:07:18 pm
Yo! Bro! As you very well know,
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Archives
April 2016
GalleryThis blog is as much about images as it is about text. Below is a slideshow of the pictures and images used in this blog. Click on any of the pictures to go to the post where that image is featured.
PostsLocating Paradise #1 In a Garden, Far, Far Away
The Testament of Abraham and the Threefold Judgement of God #5 'Stuck in the Middle With You'
The Resurrection According to Rahner
Today You Will Be With Me in Paradise
The Testament of Abraham and the Threefold Judgement of God #4 'And Who by Fire'
The Testament of Abraham and the Threefold Judgement of God #3: Held in the Balance
The Testament of Abraham and the Threefold Judgement of God #2: Once, Twice, Three Times a Sinner
The Testament of Abraham and the Threefold Judgement of God #1: The Broad and Narrow Gates
Daily Dante 7: Many Rivers to Cross
Daily Dante 6: 'You Gotta Serve Somebody'
In Hell Everyone Can Hear You Scream. The Vision of Tundale #3
Teeth, Spikes and Cleavers: At the Sharp end of Hell. The Vision of Tundale #2
'No Pain No Gain': The Vision of Tundale #1
'Hellzapoppin':
Illustrations from Le Livre de la Vigne nostre Seigneur, #2 'It's The End of the World as We Know It (and we feel fine)'. Illustrations from Le Livre de la Vigne nostre Seigneur, #1
Visions of Heaven. Botticini's Assumption of the Virgin #2 Blinded by the Light
Visions of Heaven. Botticini's Assumption of the Virgin #1: Glorious and Immortal
Daily Dante 5: What the gates said.
Daily Dante 4: When I find myself in times of trouble
Daily Dante 3: I'll take you there
Daily Dante 2: Fierce creatures
Daily Dante 1: If you go down to the woods today
In Seventh Heaven or 'What Enoch Did Next'
A World of Fire and Ice: Heaven according to Enoch
The Power and the Glory: Visions of God as king in the Hebrew bible
The Beautiful Bestiary of Catherine Cleves: Monsters and Demons in detail.
Heaven is for Real: Heaven as a physical space up above the sky
Resurrecting the Dead or Reviving the Flowers? The loss of resurrection faith in Judaism.
The Defeat of Death #1: The promise of resurrection in the Isaiah Apocalypse.
The Defeat of Death #2: Death as a hostile power and promise of God's victory in Isaiah
Scary Monsters and Super Creeps: The 'Last Judgement' according to Stefan Lochner
Hell in the Hospital: The 'Last Judgement' of Rogier van der Weyden in the Beaune altarpiece.
'Hell' in the New Testament #2: The gates of Hades shall not prevail
The Hours of Catherine Cleves: Imagining hell and purgatory in Catherine's prayer book
'On Earth as in Heaven': The kingdom of God as a revelation of heaven
'Hell' in the New Testament #1: Gehenna
Lost in Translation #1: How the King James version got it so wrong about hell
Heaven is not our home
Domes, Depths and Demons: The cosmology of the Hebrew world
A Bigger God
"See you in Sheol" - Sheol, the common destination of all
Heaven, Hell and Christian Hope
BooksBelow are some of the books which have helped me the most in the research and writing for this blog. Click on any image to find out more about that book at its page on Amazon uk.
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